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Fuente: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_Uruguay

Education in Uruguay


Education system

Primary education in Uruguay was free and compulsory; it encompassed six years of instruction. The number of primary schools in 1987 was 2,382, including 240 private schools. There were 16,568 primary school teachers and 354,177 primary school students. This resulted in a pupil-teacher ratio of approximately twenty-one to one in 1987, compared with about thirty to one in 1970. Boys and girls were enrolled in almost equal numbers.

General education in secondary schools encompassed six years of instruction divided into two three-year cycles. The first, or basic, cycle was compulsory; the second cycle was geared to university preparation. In addition to the academic track, public technical education schools provided secondary school education that was technical and vocational in nature. The two systems were parallel in structure, and there was little provision for transfer between the two. All sectors of society traditionally tended to prefer the academic course of study, which was regarded as more prestigious. As a result, academic secondary education had expanded more rapidly than technical education in the second half of the twentieth century. In 1987 there were 276 general secondary schools in Uruguay, including 118 private schools. 

Uruguay has only one public university, the University of the Republic founded in 1849, and four private universities; Universidad Católica del Uruguay (www.ucu.edu.uy), Universidad ORT Uruguay (www.ort.edu.uy), Universidad de la Empresa (www.ude.edu.uy), andUniversidad de Montevideo. The Catholic University of Uruguay, established in 1984 and also in Montevideo. Education at the University of the Republic was free and, in general, open to all those possessing a bachillerato, or certificate awarded for completion of both cycles of general secondary education. Despite the free tuition, however, access to a university education tended to be limited to children of middle and upper-income families because the need to supplement the family income by working, coupled with the expense of books and other fees, placed a university education out of the reach of many. Moreover, the fact that the only public university was in Montevideo severely limited the ability of those in the interior to attend university unless their families were relatively well off financially. In 1988 about 69 percent of university students were from Montevideo.

The quality of education in Uruguay was rated as high. Teaching was a socially respected profession and one that paid relatively well. Most teachers, trained in teachers' training colleges, were deemed well qualified. The main problem confronting the education system was the inadequacy of facilities, instructional materials, and teachers' aides. Rural areas often suffered from woefully insufficient facilities and supplies. Urban schools often were seriously overcrowded and were forced to resort to holding classes in multiple shifts. In addition, dropout and repetition rates, although moderate by Latin American standards, were still considered high.

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Fuente: http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Woods_Winnicott

Early life and education

Winnicott was born in Plymouth, Devon to Sir John Frederick Winnicott, a merchant who was knighted in 1924 after serving twice as mayor of Plymouth,^[4] and his wife, Elizabeth Martha (Woods) Winnicott.

The family was prosperous and ostensibly happy, but behind the veneer, Winnicott saw himself as oppressed by his mother, who tended toward depression, as well as by his two sisters and his nanny.^[1] He would eventually speak of 'his own early childhood experience of trying to make "my living" by keeping his mother alive'.^[5] His father's influence was that of an enterprising freethinker who encouraged his son's creativity. Winnicott described himself as a disturbed adolescent, reacting against his own self-restraining "goodness" acquired from trying to assuage the dark moods of his mother.^[6] These seeds of self-awareness became the basis of his interest in working with troubled young people.

He first thought of studying medicine while at The Leys School, a boarding school in Cambridge, when he fractured his clavicle and recorded in his diary that he wished he could treat himself. He began pre-clinical studies at Jesus College, Cambridge in 1914 but, with the onset of World War I, his studies were interrupted when he was made a medical trainee at the temporary hospital in Cambridge. In 1917, he joined the Royal Navy as a medical officer on the destroyer HMS Lucifer.

Later that year, he began studies in clinical medicine at St Bartholomew's Hospital Medical College in London. During this time, he learned from his mentor the art of listening carefully when taking medical histories from patients, a skill that he would later identify as foundational to his practice as a psychoanalyst.

Playing and reality

A central theme running through Winnicott's work was the idea of play. Departing radically from orthodox psychoanalytic thought at the time, which held that analysis helped patients mainly by making them more aware of and insightful about their unconscious beliefs and wishes, Winnicott thought that playing was the key to emotional and psychological well-being. By "playing," he meant not only the ways that children of all ages play, but also the way adults "play" through making art, or engaging in sports, hobbies, humor, meaningful conversation, et cetera. At any age, he saw play as crucial to the development of authentic selfhood, because when people play they feel real, spontaneous and alive, and keenly interested in what they're doing. He thought that insight in psychoanalysis was helpful when it came to the patient as a playful experience of creative, genuine discovery. Winnicott saw a danger in psychoanalysis as it was being practiced in his time: Patients could feel pressured to comply with their analyst's authoritative interpretations, whether or not the patient experienced them as useful or enlivening or true to their own experience, and in this way analysis could end up merely reinforcing a patient's false self disorder. Winnicott believed that it was only in playing that people are entirely their true selves, so it followed that for psychoanalysis to be effective, it needed to serve as a mode of playing.

Playing can also be seen in the use of a "transitional object," For Winnicott, one of the most important and precarious stages of development was in the first three years of life, when an infant grows into a child with an increasingly separate sense of self in relation to a larger world of other people. In health, the child learns to bring her spontaneous, real self into play with others; in a false self disorder, the child has found it unsafe or impossible to do so, and instead she feels that when she's with other people she must hide her own self, and pretend to be whatever others want or need her to be. A "transitional object" is an early and important bridge between self and other, and helps a child develop the capacity to be genuine in relationships, and creative. : 'In health there is an evolution from the transitional phenomenon, and the use of objects, to the whole play capacity of the child'.^[30]

Such 'playing with a "transitional object"...a transitional object to help him cope with separation'^[31] was for Winnicott a vital aspect of healthy development into independence. The alternative which he saw was the imitative leap forward to 'a rather ludicrous impersonation. Such incorporation of one person by another can account for that spurious maturity that we often meet with....There is the child, for instance, who, unconsciously fearing and fleeing from sex play, jumps right over to a spurious sexual maturity'.^[32] The result, for Winnicott, could be the creation of what he called 'the False Self....Other people's expectations can become of overriding importance, overlaying or contradicting the original sense of self, the one connected to the very roots of our being.^[33]

LOS APORTES DE WINNICOTT A LA PSICOLOGÍA DEL NIÑO.

K

-psicoanalista inglés mencionado en el  Congreso de Cívica, Sociología y Derecho. Setiembre 2013

-centró sus estudios en la relación madre-hijo y el self (yo).

-habla de la madre "suficientemente buena" que ayuda a crear la identidad del hijo

W

-aspectos que influyen en la relación madre-hijo

-cómo contener a un futuro adolescente

-el rol de madre o referente

L

-La madre debe "ilusionar"al niño (ofrecerle alimento, seguridad) para luego desilusionarlo, que perciba que no es uno con la madre y lo pone en contacto con la realidad.

-El niño logra independizarse mediante espacios, fenómenos y objetos transicionales que sustituyen ilusoriamente a la madre, ej un objeto preferido.

-La función de la madre es el comienzo de la autonomía , logro que toda educación debe propiciar.

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Fuente: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GDxIoQRiuDQ

Criminal Law Information: Basics of Criminal Law - FindLaw

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ABSTRACT.

En EEUU se sancionó una ley para evitar que los estadounidenses queden sin cobertura de salud. Se ofrecen beneficios económicos para que toda persona pueda acceder a un seguro, así se reducen los impuestos para la clase media. Tiene una reducción de costos para la familia y las empresas evitando gastos fuera del alcance de éstas. Los seguros serán asequibles a todos y mejorarán en costo y calidad. Con la nueva ley aprobada, aparecen reglas claras, que controla los abusos de la industria de seguros. Evitará que queden fuera tratamientos que no serán ordenados por no cubrirlo el seguro de la persona. Las autoridades establecerán las condiciones para que las familias y los propietarios de pequeñas empresas tengan la información para tomar las decisiones que mejor se adapten a su economía. La nueva ley que se implementó durante la presidencia de Obama, promovió un mercado de seguros abierto y competitivo, existiendo libertad de elegir el seguro sin que medien condiciones pre- existentes que impidan obtenerlo.

Title I. Quality, Affordable Health Care for All Americans

This Act puts individuals, families and small business owners in control of their health care. It reduces premium costs for millions of working families and small businesses by providing hundreds of billions of dollars in tax relief – the largest middle class tax cut for health care in history. It also reduces what families will have to pay for health care by capping out-of-pocket expenses and requiring preventive care to be fully covered without any out-of-pocket expense. For Americans with insurance coverage who like what they have, they can keep it. Nothing in this act or anywhere in the bill forces anyone to change the insurance they have, period.

Americans without insurance coverage will be able to choose the insurance coverage that works best for them in a new open, competitive insurance market – the same insurance market that every member of Congress will be required to use for their insurance. The insurance exchange will pool buying power and give Americans new affordable choices of private insurance plans that have to compete for their business based on cost and quality. Small business owners will not only be able to choose insurance coverage through this exchange, but will receive a new tax credit to help offset the cost of covering their employees.

It keeps insurance companies honest by setting clear rules that rein in the worst insurance industry abuses. And it bans insurance companies from denying insurance coverage because of a person's pre-existing medical conditions while giving consumers new power to appeal insurance company decisions that deny doctor ordered treatments covered by insurance.

The Secretary has the authority to implement many of these new provisions to help families and small business owners have the information they need to make the choices that work best for them.